A Study of the "Family Letter Style" in Daoist Rituals (Part One)

Institute of Religious Studies, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 

  Li Zhihong

 

Taoist rituals and folk divination arts are closely connected. Taoist rituals originate from folk divination arts and represent their refinement and systematization.[1] In the process of folk rituals moving toward refinement and systematization, the transmission of precepts and the transmission of registers are of vital importance. However, in the practice of rituals, folk masters often have no registers to transmit, and it is common for them to practice rituals without receiving registers. In the actual religious needs of the people, "rituals" are more important than "registers," and whether a master has received registers is not the key factor in their choice of religious practitioners. Against this backdrop, it is common for masters to receive rituals but not registers, resulting in the separation of rituals and registers. At the same time, due to the emphasis on master transmission and "lineage rules," the "family letter" style of Taoist rituals, characterized by sending "family letters" to the founding masters of one's own sect, is frequently seen. The "family letter" style can be said to represent the emergence of a virtual bloodline system in Taoist rituals.

 

I.         The Phenomenon of Separation Between Masters and "Rituals" and "Registers"

 

In the history and reality of Taoism, even when some masters formally take a master and receive ritual registers, "receiving registers" and "receiving rituals" are often separated. The folk master Jiang Anshi, recorded in Hong Mai's Yijian Zhi, "received registers from Zhang Jingsui, the Heavenly Master of Longhu Mountain, and received rituals from Master Huang Bimei of Nanyue."[2] This characteristic of folk rituals also influenced Taoist priests' views on receiving rituals. Zhao Zujian, a Taoist priest of the Tianxin Orthodox Method recorded in Yijian Zhi, when he abandoned the Tianxin Orthodox Method and switched to studying the Five Thunder Method, did not go through a formal ritual of receiving registers, but merely received talismanic methods from the divine being "Tan Zhenren." Because the divine generals of the Tianxin Orthodox Method's ritual court accepted bribes, Zhao Zujian's rituals were ineffective. In anger, Zhao decided to switch to studying the Five Thunder Orthodox Method. When changing to another method, one should normally change masters, but Zhao "had no master," so he could only "burn incense before the image of Tan Zhenren," hoping thereby to gain "enlightenment." After several years of this back-and-forth, Zhao only obtained four talismanic methods of the Five Thunder Orthodox Method. In the end, Tan Zhenren, moved by Zhao's diligence, descended to the mortal world and transmitted all seventy-two Five Thunder talismans to Zhao. Although Zhao received the thunder talismans, he did not receive the register rank, which did not conform to the rituals and regulations of the Shenxiao Thunder Method school.[3]

Looking at the entire history of Taoism, it can be said that Taoism's folk nature is its fundamental root. As a religion, Taoism has a philosophical system as its soul, and also has thousands of years of deep and heavy soil and roots formed by the accumulation of diverse and complex folk culture. Taoism is deeply integrated with folk society, indistinguishable from it, and has already become a way of life for the people.[4] Folk society is a broader space for the practice of Taoist rituals such as the Tianxin Orthodox Method and the Zhaohou Southern Method. Among those who practice the Tianxin Orthodox Method among the people, the groups often include "Taoist priests," "Taoists," "masters," "shamans," and so on. They are active in folk society, practicing "rituals" as their craft, and are not limited by whether they have received "registers." We list below the groups practicing the Tianxin Orthodox Method as recorded in historical sources:

 

Diagram of the Practitioners of the Tianxin Orthodox Method as Recorded in Notebook Novels

 

Identity	Master	Circumstances of Performing the Method	Source
Wang Jun	Skilled in writing talismans, practiced the Tianxin Orthodox Method	Healed the sick and exorcised evil spirits for the villagers	Dongpo Zhilin, Volume 3
Taoist Qian Gongchen of Chengdu	Good at observing precepts, practiced the Tianxin Orthodox Method	His talisman water was often efficacious; he lived in the capital treating people's illnesses, and his earnings were considerable	Longchuan Luezhi, Volume 10
Taoist Wang Tai	Initially received the Tianxin Method	Had merit in controlling ghosts and spirits for people	Houshan Congtan, Volume 1
He Dianzhi  was also a tattooed soldier	Good at practicing the Tianxin Orthodox Method	Ziyou's wife had been haunted by evil spirits for two years, and He cured her	Sun Gong Tanpu, Volume 2

Right Auxiliary Official Yang Zhonggong

Practiced the Heart of Heaven Method

By observing a person's complexion, he could know whether they were afflicted by spirits or not

"Yijian Zhizhi" Volume A, Chapter 5, "Tang Siniang's Maidservant"

Magistrate of Nanling County, Qian Tang

Qian had long practiced the Orthodox Heart of Heaven Method

 

"Yijian Zhizhi" Volume B, Chapter 5, "The Bee King of Nanling"

The thirteenth Master Xu, from the north of Huzhou city

Thereupon he devoted himself to the Way and practiced the Heart of Heaven Summoning and Examination Method

When treating and saving people, his efficacy was extraordinarily miraculous, yet he sought nothing in return. Even incense, fire, and paper money were all provided by himself. Regardless of rich or poor, high or low, he would settle matters promptly. He never went to the patient's home or looked upon their face, but only had them submit a written complaint

"Yijian Zhizhi·Volume B, Chapter 9", "Master Xu the Thirteenth"

Imperial clansman Zhao Zijü, courtesy name Shengzhi

Received the Orthodox Heart of Heaven Method from a "Daoist"

Zijü was suddenly enlightened, and immediately bowed twice to receive the transmission. He painted images of the Six Ding and Six Jia spirits, and observed fasting and worship with utmost reverence

"Yijian Yizhi·Volume 6", "Zhao the Seventh Envoy"

Zhao Bowu, son of Zijü

Imitated his father in practicing the Heart of Heaven Method, but had not yet completed it

Bowu knew he was possessed by a spirit, and also practiced the method to contend with it. From the hour of Shen until the third watch it did not stop. Unable to bear the exhaustion, he abandoned it and left

"Yijian Yizhi·Volume 6", "The Apparition Contends with the Method"

A Taoist priest in Zhuangzi Temple, Mengcheng County, Bozhou, who often practiced the Heart of Heaven method

 

was bound to the beam, with his feet turned upward, and two cane marks on his back as large as bowls; he was already dead. His feet were loosely embracing the beam, with no rope binding them at first

"Yijian Yizhi," Volume 7, "The Taoist Priest of Mengcheng Temple"

Gui Baixiang of Kuaiji

 

could command the Six Jia and Six Ding spirits, and was famous for upholding the orthodox method, being called a True Official

"Yijian Yizhi," Volume 15, "Gui the True Official"

A Taoist priest

 

used the Heart of Heaven Six Ding talismans to subdue ghosts

"Yijian Jiazhi," Volume 13, "Yang Datong"

Master Wang of Yongjin Gate in Lin'an

but he was not a Taoist priest

He usually practiced the Heart of Heaven method, performing rituals and offerings for others, wearing a star crown and a ritual robe, but he was not a Taoist priest

Because the common people compared him to the yellow-hatted Taoists, his fees were already reduced by one-third, so he was often employed. He always had his neighbor, a man named Li, write memorials and green-word prayers. On the fifteenth day of the first month of the second year of the Qingyuan era, a wealthy family, on the occasion of the Lantern Festival, invited him to conduct a protective ritual

"Yijian Zhizhi," Volume 6 of the Wu series, "Master Wang"

Ren Daoyuan was a man of Fuzhou, the eldest son of the former Vice Director of the Court of Imperial Sacrifices, Wen Jian

In his youth he admired the Way, studied under the master Ouyang Wenbin to receive the purification rites, and practiced the Heart of Heaven method

On the evening of the Lantern Festival in the thirteenth year of the Chunxi era, the residents of the northern city jointly held a great Yellow Register ritual at the hermitage of a man named Zhang Jun, inviting Ren to serve as the high officiant. During the ceremony, spectators gathered like clouds

"Yijian Zhizhi · Volume 5 of Wu" "Ren Daoyuan"

Taoist Zhao Zujian of Hengzhou

Initially practiced the Tianxin Method

At the time, he was treating a fellow villager for possession. After it stopped, it recurred. In anger, he seized the possessing spirit and interrogated it. It replied: 'I did not dare come on my own; rather, a divine general of your ritual court accepted a bribe from me, and so I dared to do so. Now I will leave.' Zhao thought to himself: 'The reason I uphold the orthodox law to subdue demons is that I rely on the gods to act for me. Now that they openly accept bribes and entrustments, what can I rely on!' He intended to report their crimes to the Eastern Peak.

"Yijian Zhizhi · Volume 5 of Yi" "Tan Zhenren"

A man of the commandery, Jiang Jiangshi, who purchased an official title with grain

Could perform the Five Thunder Tianxin Method

 

"Yijian Zhizhi · Volume 7 of Yi" "Jiang Jiangshi"

Chen Jue, also known as Yuancheng, whose mother née Feng was a niece of Cai

Chen practiced the Tianxin Method, ate vegetarian food, and was merely a Daoist priest

 

"Yijian Dingzhi · Volume 6" "Wang Wenqing Xiang"

Song Anguo served as the military inspector of Western Zhejiang

Stationed in Huzhou, he did not abandon his practice of the Tianxin Method

 

"Yijian Dingzhi · Volume 4" "Deqing Tree Demon"

Liu Shugan of Quzhou was originally a scholar

In his youth, he traveled to the capital and once stayed at the residence of the grand master Shen Yuanyong. He encountered an extraordinary monk who passed by and examined him, recognizing that he would not achieve fame or success, but that his eyes were blue, suitable for entering the path of ghosts. The monk gladly taught him the marvelous art of divination by images, and he reluctantly accepted it. Another guest transmitted to him the orthodox Tianxin Method, which he also reluctantly accepted.

 

"Yijian Sanzhi" Ren Volume Third, "Liu Shugan Acquired the Method

Zhang Sheng, a shaman from Huaijin Township, Wuyuan

was skilled in sorcery and could bring misfortune upon people

 

"Yijian Zhiding Zhi" Volume Fourth, "Zhang the Sorcerous Shaman"

 

As shown in the table, practitioners of the Tianxin Orthodox Method came from all levels of society, from the "imperial clan" at the top to scholars, Daoist priests, ritual masters, and shamans at the bottom. Their magical arts came from different master traditions. For example, "imperial clan member Zhao Zijü" received the Tianxin Orthodox Method from a "Daoist"; his son Zhao Bowu practiced the Tianxin Orthodox Method "following his father," showing that the method was passed down within the family; Ren Daoyuan of Fuzhou "received the Refinement Rite from his master Ouyang Wenbin"; and Liu Shugan of Quzhou learned the Tianxin Orthodox Method from "a stranger" while traveling to the capital. Clearly, because the master traditions of the magical arts differed, it was impossible to make all these practitioners adhere to the rule that "the method and the register must go together." After all, "Daoists," unnamed "strangers," and "shamans" had no registers to transmit at all. Moreover, many of the aforementioned Tianxin Orthodox Method masters even had unclear master traditions, let alone having received registers.

 

II. The "Family-Letter Style" of Daoist Magical Arts

 

As mentioned above, among folk ritual masters, not only were the reception of the method and the reception of the register separated, making it impossible to unify "method" and "register," but the master traditions were also unclear. In view of this, Daoism strongly promoted the orthodoxy of master transmission. After the appearance of the Tianxin Orthodox Method, due to the diversification of master traditions, divisions arose within the Daoist schools. Rao Dongtian, the "first patriarch of Tianxin," founded the school; Yuan Miaozong "followed and transmitted the established methods"; and Lu Shizhong established the "Yutang Great Teaching." Although all of them upheld the "theory of the Three Radiances" of the Tianxin Orthodox Method and all attached importance to the "Three Talismans and Two Seals," they each established their own lineage systems. Differences in master transmission and divisions among Daoist schools ultimately led to differences in the Daoist arts. The diversification of the divine general system of the later "Northern Pole Exorcism Court" school originated precisely from the lack of uniformity in master transmission:

 

The True Master said: "The 'Northern Pole Exorcism Court' originally had only the four generals Cui, Lu, Deng, and Dou. Now four more names have been added. The 'Meixian Summoning and Investigation Court' originally had only the four generals Pan, Geng, Lu, and Zha, and now four more names have been added. These were all added by later generations and are not part of the original method." The True Master said: "Ancient ritual officials used the two generals Huang and Liu, some used the two generals Gao and Ding, others used the two generals Jiao and Zeng, and still others used the two generals Sang and He, or Xu and Xie. Whatever they received from their masters proved effective without exception.[5]

 

In Bai Yuchan's view, the proliferation of the system of Daoist ritual deities was an objective fact, rooted in differences in master-to-disciple transmission. In the history of the development of Daoist ritual techniques, in response to the diversified landscape of Daoist methods, there have been many eminent Daoists in every generation who, positioning themselves as defenders of classical tradition, sought to unify and standardize them. However, the factionalization and regionalization of Daoist methods was, after all, an unavoidable fact. The wise approach was to respect this diversity while using the ritual deities according to the transmission standards of each school, as expressed in the saying, "Whatever one has received from one's master will prove efficacious in practice." This concept of harmony amidst diversity was an effective response to the separation of registers from methods and differences in master-to-disciple transmission. It was the internal driving force behind the continuous evolution and increasing pluralization of Daoist ritual techniques. It was also the necessary path for enriching and developing Daoist ritual techniques while respecting the mainstream tradition of Daoist ritual.

The emergence of the "ordination ritual" in Daoist liturgy is a manifestation of the importance placed on master-to-disciple transmission. As mentioned above, the ordination ritual of the Tianxin Orthodox Method can be divided into seven procedures: First, the disciple seeking transmission submits a petition earnestly requesting the orthodox method[6]; second, the disciple submits a petition requesting a recommending master[7]; third, the disciple presents to the master nine liang of gold, a pair of gold rings, and a length of cord as tokens of sincerity,[8] four liang of black silk to symbolize the cutting of hair, and seven liang of cinnabar to symbolize the swearing of a blood oath[9]; fourth, the performance of the "Ritual of Precepts for the Orthodox Master of Transmission"[10], in which the recipient takes vows and receives the precepts; fifth, the master transmits to the disciple the secret writings and hand seals of the Tianxin Orthodox Method under the Big Dipper, and the disciple receives the talismanic contract of the Tianxin Orthodox Method[11]; sixth, the master memorializes the deities on behalf of the disciple[12]; seventh, the disciple receives the "Official Appointment of the Newly Ordained to the Exorcism Bureau" and submits the "Memorial of Thanksgiving upon Receiving the Appointment"[13]. Through the above rituals, a "covenant" relationship was established between master and disciple at the level of Daoist ritual techniques, one that neither party could violate. This relationship can be described as a "ritual community."