The Book of Ethics and the Era Names of Emperors

 Era names were titles used by feudal emperors in ancient times to record years. In 140 BC, after Emperor Wu of Han ascended the throne, he formally adopted "Jianyuan" as the era name. From then on, the "era name" was passed down as an institution; every new emperor upon ascending the throne had to establish a new "era name," continuing until the end of the Qing Dynasty with "Xuantong." During this period, there were 328 emperors spanning 2,051 years, during which a total of 708 era names were used. Many of these era names were permeated with elements of Daoist culture, such as "Yankang" adopted by Emperor Xian of Han, Liu Xie, and "Kaihuang" adopted by Emperor Wen of Sui, Yang Jian, which were drawn from Daoist classics; "Dihuang" by Wang Mang and "Taiping Zhenjun" by Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei, Tuoba Tao, which were derived from Daoist myths; "Tianbao" by Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, Li Longji, and "Dazhong Xiangfu" by Emperor Zhenzong of Song, Zhao Heng, which contained Daoist auspicious omens. These vividly reflect from one aspect the profound influence of Daoism, as a native religion, on Chinese politics.
It is worth noting that some imperial era names originated from the fundamental Daoist classic, the Daodejing. This is not merely about taking auspiciousness or seeking protection; more importantly, it indicates these emperors' identification with and appreciation of the Daodejing's governance strategies and political ideals. However, ironically, most emperors of successive dynasties who revered Daoism were keen on alchemy and seeking immortals, and engaged in large-scale construction projects, squandering the people's wealth, which violated the宗旨 of the Daodejing: "I practice non-action and the people transform themselves; I love tranquility and the people become upright; I do nothing and the people enrich themselves." Ultimately, they governed the country to the point where "the state was no longer its own state."

I

"Taichu" (104-101 BC) and "Taishi" (96-93 BC) were two era names of Emperor Wu of Han, Liu Che. The Western Han dynasty followed the Zhuanxu calendar of the Qin dynasty. After more than a hundred years, the accumulated error became obvious. In the seventh year of Yuanfeng (104 BC), Emperor Wu promulgated the calendar revised by Luo Xiahong and Deng Ping, and changed the seventh year of Yuanfeng to the first year of Taichu. Thus, the new calendar was also known as the Taichu Calendar. Liezi·Tianrui states: "There is Taiyi, there is Taichu, there is Taishi, there is Taisu. Taiyi is where qi has not yet appeared; Taichu is the beginning of qi; Taishi is the beginning of form; Taisu is the beginning of substance." "The Dao refers to Taichu. Taichu is the beginning of the Dao." Liezi, as an important member of the Daoist school, his thoughts can be traced back to the first chapter of the Daodejing: "The Dao that can be told is not the eternal Dao; The name that can be named is not the eternal name. The Nameless is the origin of Heaven and Earth; The Named is the mother of all things." Before heaven and earth and all things were born, the "Dao" already existed; "The Dao produces One; One produces Two; Two produces Three; Three produces All Things"; "All things under heaven are born from Being; Being is born from Non-being." It can be seen that Taichu and Taishi conform to the ultimate state described in the Daodejing where heaven and earth are not yet distinguished, chaos is undivided, yet the Great Dao is full and all-encompassing. In the early Han dynasty, the state was governed by Daoist thought, allowing the people to recover from the harsh policies of the Qin dynasty, a period known in history as the "Rule of Wen and Jing." Emperor Wu "dismissed the hundred schools of thought and revered only Confucianism," yet he was obsessed with seeking immortals, performing Feng and Shan sacrifices, and worshipping spirits and ghosts throughout his life. He favored Fangshi (magicians/astrologers) such as Gongsun Qing, Luan Da, and Li Shaojun. Coupled with his militaristic adventures, love for grand achievements, and extravagant spending, he caused "the empire to be depleted, and the population to be halved." In his later years, Emperor Wu issued an "Edict of Self-Blame" to reflect on himself, saying bitterly: "In the past, I was foolish and deluded, deceived by the Fangshi. How can there be immortals in the world? They are all frauds!"
In addition, during the Northern and Southern Dynasties, four other emperors adopted "Taichu" as their era name: Fu Deng, Emperor Gao of Former Qin (386-394); Qifu Qiangui, Emperor Wu Yuan of Western Qin (388-400); Tufa Wugu, Emperor Liezu of Southern Liang (397-399); and Liu Shao, Emperor of Song in the Southern Dynasties (453-453).
"Taishang" was the era name of Murong Chao, ruler of the Southern Yan state in the Sixteen Kingdoms period, which occupied the Qi and Lu regions (405-410). Chapter 17 of the Daodejing states: "The highest virtue is like the valley; The great man is like the humble; The great virtue is like the deficient." The highest realm of rulership is governing through non-action, where the country is strong and rich, and people live happily without being aware of the ruler's existence. "Working at sunrise, resting at sunset; Digging wells to drink, plowing fields to eat. What power does the Emperor have over me?" A story in Liezi·Zhongni provides a vivid annotation for the political ideal of Daoism: "Emperor Yao went incognito to stroll along the main road, hearing children sing: 'You established us, the common people, with no limit. Unknowing, unthinking, we followed the Emperor's way.'" Although Murong Chao's era name was "Taishang" (Supreme), his rule was precisely the "lowest" kind of "fearing and insulting." Historical records state that during his reign, he "neglected state affairs and loved hunting and roaming," repeatedly sending troops into Eastern Jin territory to kidnap men, women, and property, causing "disappointment in the court and among the people, and suffering for the commoners." Eventually, the capital Guanggu (modern Qingzhou, Shandong) was captured by Liu Yu, Murong Chao was sent to Jiankang (modern Nanjing) and beheaded, and the Southern Yan regime came to an end.
In addition, "Taishang" means the highest. Daoism reveres Laozi, the author of the Daodejing, as Taishang Laojun, abbreviated as Taishang. Many later Daoist scriptures used the name of Taishang, for example, Taishang Ganying Pian, Taishang Dongyuan Shenzhou Jing, Taishang Laoqing Jing, etc.

II

"Jiande" was the era name of Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou, Yuwen Yong (572-578), derived from Chapter 41 of the Daodejing: "Established virtue appears like theft; True nature appears like change. The great square has no corners; The great vessel takes long to complete." "Theft" here means leisurely or secret. The ruler "governs through non-action," appearing lazy and idle, as if doing nothing, yet maximizing the people's interests. He does not bluff or boast of his achievements, so even if the common people wanted to sing his praises, they would find no reason to do so.
Yuwen Yong was an emperor who worked hard to govern and achieved much. He hid his abilities and bided his time for twelve years, finally killing the powerful minister Yuwen Hu in the seventh year of Tianhe (572), taking personal control of the government, and changing the era name to Jiande, hoping to achieve great deeds. Yuwen Yong "abandoned extravagance and removed falsehood," usually wearing cloth robes and sleeping on cloth quilts, without gold or jewelry ornaments. His harem had only about ten concubines. He was diligent and humble, taking governing the country as his responsibility. In every campaign, he led the soldiers from the front, earning deep respect from them. Yuwen Yong liked Daoism and once invited Daoist priests like Wei Jie, Yan Da, and Wang Yan to the palace for consultation. He built Daoist temples for them, awarded them money and goods, and funded them to compile and edit Daoist scriptures, promoting the doctrine. During his reign, he issued edicts twice to suppress Buddhism, burning Buddhist statues and scriptures, confiscating temple lands and properties to the state, ordering monks and nuns to return to secular life, and starting the taxation and service of the large population held by temples, which allowed the social economy to recover to some extent. After destroying Northern Qi and unifying the north, Yuwen Yong was full of ambition. In 578 AD, just as he planned to "pacify the Turks and settle the Jiangnan," realizing his ideal of unifying the whole country, he unfortunately died of a sudden illness during the northern expedition.
"Dacheng" was the era name of Emperor Xuan of Northern Zhou, Yuwen Yun (579), derived from Chapter 45 of the Daodejing: "Great perfection seems incomplete, yet its use never fails; Great fullness seems empty, yet its use never ends." Even the most perfect thing appears to have flaws, yet its function is infinite. Or rather, it is precisely the apparent "flaws" that allow it to become great, making "its use never fail." This also conforms to the meaning of the Daodejing: "The net of Heaven is vast, wide-meshed, yet it lets nothing slip."
"Daxiang" was the era name of Emperor Jing of Northern Zhou, Yuwen Chan (579-580), derived from Chapter 35 of the Daodejing: "Holding the Great Image, the world comes. Coming and not harming, it is peaceful and safe." "Daxiang" (Great Image) is the highest realm entered by those who have attained the Dao, which is real and not false, bright and clear. All things in the world appear here. All things are in harmony; I have no heart to harm things, and things have no intent to harm me. Naturally, one can remain calm and composed, living in peace. When a sage governs the country, "he engages in non-action and teaches without words," creating a natural and simple social atmosphere, and ambitious people from all over the world naturally come seeking the Dao. The sage has no prejudice of state or nation but treats everyone equally. In this way, society forms a scene of a peaceful era where all ethnic groups live in harmony. Additionally, Chapter 41 of the Daodejing also says: "The greatest sound is silent; The greatest image has no form." This means that the world's greatest, magnificent, and sublime atmosphere and realm are often not confined to certain things and patterns, but manifest as a "myriad phenomena" appearance and scene. This atmosphere of a prosperous era did not appear in Northern Zhou.
Emperor Wu Yuwen Yong was very strict with his crown prince Yuwen Yun, but Yuwen Yun was quite incompetent. He even cursed his father's coffin: "You died too late!" History records that "when Emperor Xuan first ascended, he indulged in luxury and desire." Yuwen Yun loved grandeur, indulged in wine and women, played without restraint, and neglected state affairs. Less than a year after ascending the throne, in order to experience being a "Taishang Huang" (Retired Emperor), the twenty-one-year-old Yuwen Yun "abdicated the throne to the crown prince Chan, issued a general amnesty, changed the era name to Daxiang, and called himself Tianyuan Emperor." The palace he lived in was called "Tiantai," and when speaking to ministers, he referred to himself as "Tian" (Heaven) instead of "Zhen" (I, the Emperor). Yuwen Yun often sat between a large Buddha statue and a Tianzun statue, watching acrobatic performances in the square. In 580 AD, the twenty-two-year-old Yuwen Yong died of illness while避暑 (cooling off) at Tianxing Palace. In 581 AD, Yang Jian deposed the eight-year-old Emperor Jing, Yuwen Chan, and established the Sui Dynasty. Regarding this history of Northern Zhou, Wang Fuzhi believed that although Emperor Wu Yuwen Yong had remarkable achievements, his militarism had alienated the people's hearts. Coupled with the two years of extreme cruelty and desire by Emperor Tianyuan, both rulers forgot the ancient teaching of governing by virtue and non-action yet achieving everything. This was an important reason for the change of dynasty.

III

"Jiushi" was the era name of Wu Zetian (700-701), derived from Chapter 59 of the Daodejing: "The mother of the state can be long-lasting. This is called deep roots and firm foundations, the way of long life and enduring vision." It means that as long as the ruler follows the way of inner sage and outer king, not only can he be healthy and long-lived, but he can also ensure the long-term stability of the country. On May 5, 700 AD, the seventy-seven-year-old Wu Zetian recovered from illness after taking longevity medicine, changed the era name to "Jiushi," issued a general amnesty, and removed the title "Tiance Jinlun Dasheng." Wu Zetian was the only female emperor in Chinese history. She strategically adopted a policy of revering Buddhism and suppressing Daoism, claiming to be the reincarnation of Maitreya Buddha to take the Tang throne and become emperor. The era names she used, such as "Zhengsheng," "Tongtian," "Shengong," "Dazu," etc., all had Buddhist content, forming a sharp contrast with the Daoist-era names of Emperor Taizong of Tang, who claimed descent from the ancestor of Daoism, "Zhenguan," and Emperor Gaozong of Tang, "Yonghui," "Qianfeng," "Shangyuan," "Hongdao," etc.

"Guangde" was the era name of Emperor Daizong of Tang, Li Yu (763-764), derived from Chapter 41 of the Daodejing: "High virtue is like a valley; Great whiteness seems like disgrace; Great virtue seems like deficiency." A person of great virtue always feels that their virtue is insufficient. When they perform meritorious deeds, it seems as if they did nothing. They never become satisfied or proud because of this, nor do they need the world's praise. This is indeed a quality that rulers should possess, but sages seem to exist only in ideals. The rule of Emperor Daizong was truly lacking in merit. When Li Yu ascended the throne, the An Lushan Rebellion had not yet been pacified, and the Tang Dynasty was gradually declining. At that time, there were separatist warlords in the east, constant extortion by the Uyghurs in the north, and constant harassment by the Tibetans in the west. The Tibetans even occupied the capital Chang'an for eleven days in the first year of Guangde (763). Emperor Daizong was also superstitious about Buddhism, with temples possessing large amounts of land and population, further worsening the country's political and economic situation.
"Dashun" was the era name of Emperor Zhaozong of Tang, Li Ye (890-891), derived from Chapter 65 of the Daodejing: "Profound virtue is deep and far, contrary to things. Only then does one reach Dashun." Dashun refers to the social operation rules completely conforming to natural laws, with national stability and people's happiness. When Li Ye ascended the throne, the Tang Dynasty was already in a precarious situation, and he himself was constantly controlled by the eunuch faction and warlord forces. During his reign, Li Ye changed several auspicious era names like "Jingfu," "Tianfu," and "Tianyou," hoping that heaven would protect the Li family's empire, but he had the heart to seek governance but lacked the power to turn things around. In 904 AD, Li Ye was killed by Zhu Wen in Luoyang.
"Mingdao" was the era name of Emperor Renzong of Song, Zhao Zhen (1032-1034), derived from Chapter 41 of the Daodejing: "The bright Dao seems obscure; The advancing Dao seems retreating." The bright and upright Dao seems obscure; those who understand the Great Dao discard petty cleverness. Although wise, they do not use their wisdom, and great wisdom appears foolish, inevitably being ridiculed by the world as confused. Zhao Zhen reigned for forty-two years, the longest among Song emperors. He was kind and generous, did not pursue luxury, and was good at accepting advice. "Although he could not do anything, he knew how to be an emperor." During the reign of Emperor Renzong of Song, famous ministers such as Fan Zhongyan and Bao Zheng emerged. The country was peaceful, and people's lives were relatively stable. After his death, someone wrote a poem in mourning: "Agriculture and sericulture are undisturbed, and the years are always abundant; Border generals have no merit, and it is even worse. Forty-two years are like a dream; Spring wind blows tears past Zhaoling." It has a taste of "Taishang, unknown of his existence" and "governing through non-action."
"Zhizhi" was the era name of Emperor Yingzong of Yuan, Shuode Bal (1321-1323 AD), derived from Zhuangzi·Quqie: "The people use knotted cords, sweeten their food, beautify their clothes, rejoice in their customs, and settle in their homes. Neighboring countries can be seen from each other, and the sounds of chickens and dogs can be heard. People live until old age and death without interacting with each other. In such a time, it is the highest governance." This passage describes the content of Chapter 80 of the Daodejing. Laozi believed that a society of highest governance must have simple folk customs, social harmony, world peace, and people living and working in peace, far from the threat of war.

In short, the wording of feudal imperial era names was very refined, always repeatedly selected to pick the most auspicious words in the Chinese language. Perhaps Daoism better reflects the Chinese people's festive psychology of seeking fortune, wealth, immortality, and good governance. Therefore, a large number of era names with Daoist colors appeared in history. The author has selected several imperial era names related to the Daodejing in historical order for preliminary analysis, with brief comments on the achievements of these emperors. Although some connections may be forced, it may be helpful in understanding Mr. Lu Xun's famous assertion that "the root of China lies entirely in Daoism."