Chanting Therapy in Folk Secret Religions in the Qing Dynasty (Part 2)

 The chanting therapy in folk secret religions often relied on masters chanting scriptures and offering prayers. As for how they acquired the ability to cure illnesses through chanting, each had their own origins. Some came from family environments where members practiced the religion, and through constant exposure, they learned methods for curing diseases; others joined secret sects, took masters, cultivated themselves, and learned to chant scriptures, thereby gaining the ability to pray and cure for others. Regarding those from religious families, during the Yongzheng reign, Pan Yuheng, the leader of the San Cheng Hui (Three Vehicles Society), followed his father in eating vegetarian food and chanting scriptures from childhood. Later, he often chanted scriptures to cure illnesses for others. He confessed: My father was named Pan Qiancheng, also known as Maofang... This San Cheng Hui was the religious name practiced by my father... My father once passed on the teachings to Wang Ziwang and Hou Junyao from Nanling County... When my father was alive, I followed him in eating vegetarian food and chanting scriptures. After my father died, I took over the practice of the religion, and people would come to chant scriptures and worship Buddha, offering donations to me... Xia Gongxu was taught by my father. On February 18 of last year, Xia Gongxu fell ill. I was called by Xia Yusan. Together with Xia Yusan and Wang Zhihui, I chanted scriptures all night... Usually, when I chant scriptures at home, it is for Xia Gongxiang, Xia Yusan, Wang Zhihui, and the deceased Xia Gongxu; there are no others... Only people seeking chanting therapy often come.

 Through Pan Yuheng's confession, it can be seen that he grew up in a family with a strong religious atmosphere. He followed his father in practicing the religion and chanting scriptures, and later inherited the religious事业 established by his father, taking over his father's followers, while also using chanting for healing as a way to attract people into the sect. Similar cases of inheriting father's chanting activities include: during the Qianlong reign, the teacher of the Sun Jing (Sun Scripture), Zhu Hong, had a father who frequently recited the "Sun Jing" during his lifetime, claiming it could eliminate disasters and bring blessings. Zhu Hong memorized the scriptures by listening to them. Thus, when he fell ill in the 38th year of Qianlong (1773), he recovered through chanting, and later attracted nearby villagers to pay money to learn the scriptures. Also, in the 21st year of Jiaqing (1816), Chen Jin, a villager from Daxinzhuang, Shandong, was discovered by officials to have scriptures from sects such as the Hongyang Sect left by his father, including 16 sets of "Hongyang Jingchan", 6 sets of scriptures such as "Pumen", and 25 books of scriptures such as "Sun". Chen Jin often saw his father reciting these scriptures while alive and later imitated him. This not only cured his own illness but also allowed him to chant for others. According to a memorial by the Shandong Governor Chen Yu:
(Chen Jin) confessed that he was 52 years old, lived as a farmer, and had never traveled far. His deceased father, Chen Xuemeng, brought back a box of scriptures and images from somewhere unknown due to his old age and illness. He kept the images at home and chanted scriptures. When his father was seriously ill, he instructed Chen Jin to lock the scriptures and images in a box for storage and told him that chanting them during disasters or illnesses could eliminate them... In early February of this year, the offender suffered from malaria that did not heal. Remembering his father's words, he opened the box and took out the Hongyang and other scriptures. Having studied in a village school in his childhood, he could read roughly. He began to chant them himself, and subsequently recovered. Meanwhile, four neighbors, Zhao Fuxing, Yan Baomin, Sun Han, and Li Jinghua, suffered from malaria that did not heal. Hearing about the healing through chanting, they hoped for a cure. Since they were illiterate, they asked Chen Jin to chant for them, and he agreed. Zhao Fuxing and others prepared simple offerings before the deity, prayed, and returned first. Chen Jin had not informed them which scriptures he was chanting. While he was chanting, he was questioned and arrested... The confiscated scriptures did not contain subversive sentences, but the Hongyang Jing contained phrases like "Wusheng Laomu" (Eternal Mother) and "Piao Gao Laozu" (Ancestor Piao Gao).
  Chen Jin's experience in chanting for healing came from his father's religious practice and oral transmission, which made him understand that chanting had curative effects. Therefore, when he contracted malaria, he relieved his pain by chanting, and the news of his recovery attracted several patients to beg him to chant. Besides the three male masters mentioned above who could chant for healing due to their family's religious background, there were also several cases where widows inherited their maiden families' or husbands' sects to solve livelihood problems, chanting for healing and organizing meetings to collect donations from followers.

 For example, in the 12th year of Qianlong (1747), Hu Guan Shi, the female leader of the Qiaoliang (Bridge) Sect, chanted for healing, which is a clear example. According to a memorial by the Shanxi Governor Asiha: Hu Guan Shi's deceased father, Guan Lunmin, had been accustomed to chanting for healing during the Kangxi reign. When Hu Guan Shi married Hu Changsi, Changsi had been a farmer since childhood. At 18, he suffered from leprosy, which was cured by Guan Lunmin's chanting... When he was 32, Guan Lunmin died. Hu Changsi took back the remaining scriptures and practiced them, also using them to cure illnesses and deceive people. Thus, Wang Cengu, Zhao Fulin, Zhao Xi, Li Dayou, He Yongkang (also known as He Yuanzhen), etc., who sought his healing and recovered, were induced to become disciples... Later, due to the strict prohibition of the Wuwei Sect and others during the Yongzheng reign, the name was changed to Qiaoliang Sect... In June of the 12th year of Qianlong, Hu Changsi died. His wife, Hu Guan Shi, had no means to make a living, so she inherited her husband's practices, chanting for healing, organizing meetings, and collecting silver to use for making tea and repairing bridges... The scriptures she chanted were all vulgar words of exhortation to goodness among rural women, without any absurd statements of heretical magic or talismans. Hu Guan Shi's healing experience came from her father Guan Lunmin and husband Hu Changsi, both of whom had chanted for healing with good results, attracting recovered patients to join the sect. After Hu Changsi passed away, Hu Guan Shi inherited her husband's sect to chant for healing, thereby continuing the sect and also seeking economic sources. Besides the teaching masters whose chanting healing abilities stemmed from their own religious family backgrounds, some masters directly took masters to practice the religion and gained the ability to chant for healing. During the Jiaqing reign, Zhang Jingshan of the Hunyuan Sect took Liu Zhongyu as his master, ate vegetarian food, chanted scriptures, and cured illnesses for others.

 Also, during the Jiaqing reign, Sheng Yongning, a resident of Jiangyin County, Jiangsu, transmitted the Dacheng Sect. In the sect, every first and fifteenth day of the lunar month, they hung the lotus throne image of Piao Gao Laozu, chanted scriptures such as "Mingzong Xiaoyi Jing" and "Quxie Guizheng Jing", ate vegetarian food, and chanted to pray for disaster elimination and blessings.

 During the Daoguang reign, Chen Xi and others of the Hongyang Sect took masters and transmitted disciples in Shengjing, chanting for healing, and were discovered by officials.

 In addition, some masters derived from their own or family's medical experiences, realizing the efficacy of chanting through the process of seeking medical treatment, and then taking masters, joining the sect, learning to chant scriptures, and curing illnesses for others. In the case of practicing the religion after falling ill oneself, for example, in the 44th year of Qianlong (1779), Liu He, a resident of Dezhou, Shandong, was cured of illness by the Hongyang teacher Yin Chenggong. He accepted Yin's persuasion to take him as a master, learned to chant 4 scriptures such as "Xiaoshi Hunyuan Hongyang Jing" and "Dafazu Linxin Jing", and later also chanted for healing and prayers for others, spreading the sect.

 Another reason for some masters to practice the religion and chant came from the process of seeking medical treatment for family members. For example, during the Jiaqing reign, Ying Tiancheng, a resident of Jingzhou, Zhili, previously invited the Hongyang teacher Zhao Tang to cure his father's illness. He then took Zhao as his master, learned to chant the "Hunyuan Hongyang Jing", and later often chanted Hongyang scriptures for others, claiming it could eliminate disasters, prolong life, and completely cure illnesses.55 Also, in the 17th year of Jiaqing (1812), Xin Cunren, a villager from Weizitun, Zhili, invited the Hongyang teacher Wang Qinghuan to chant the "Jiulian Jing" to cure his mother's illness. Later, he also took a master to learn scriptures and cured illnesses for others. According to a memorial by the Jilin General Fu Jun: Xin Cunren, originally from Zhili, moved to Weizigou Tun in the jurisdiction... In the 17th year of Jiaqing, his mother, Mu Shi, fell ill. At that time, Wang Qinghuan, the deceased abbot of Zhenwu Temple in Sandaoling, Jilin, with the Dharma name Linfa, traveled to the offender's door to beg for alms. It was late at night, so he stayed over. Xin Cunren inquired about how to cure his mother's frequent illnesses. Wang Qinghuan replied that by worshipping Piao Gao Laozu, learning the Hongyang Sect's Jiulian Jing, and writing the tablets of "Wusheng Laofu" and "Wusheng Laomu" on yellow paper, if worshipped with faith, over time it could create something from nothing, eliminate something from something, and with the mixed primordial qi, the illness would be cured. Hearing this, the offender followed Wang Qinghuan as his master. Wang Qinghuan chanted, and instructed the offender to write the tablet. He also gave him a wooden seal with the inscription "Bingjiao Shamen", one copy of "Jiulian Jing", two copies of "Bao'en Jing", one copy of "Saoxin Jing", one copy of "Mingzong Juan", one copy of "Hudao Bangwen", and one copy of "Daben Huanyuan Jing", instructing him to worship them before the tablet, and transmitted the teachings of sitting in meditation, turning qi for 3, 4, or 9 turns, and mantras. He then returned. In the 18th year, Wang Qinghuan transmitted disciples to Yu Chenggong, Chen You, Chen Ligong, Jiang Kai, Seng Xuchang, etc., to join the sect by burning incense, learning the 3, 4, 9 turn qi turning practice, and gave Chen Ligong scriptures such as "Kugong Wudao". From the above memorial, it can be seen that Wang Qinghuan took a master and learned scriptures in the context of praying for his mother's recovery. The categories of scriptures he chanted were numerous, not limited to Hongyang Sect scriptures, but also covering scriptures from other sects, showing that they hoped to achieve greater medical effects through the chanting of various scriptures.

 In summary, exploring the process by which folk secret religion masters learned chanting therapy reveals that they mostly came from religious families or had similar medical experiences. They either learned directly from family members practicing the religion or were taught by masters of certain sects. After contacting and learning to chant certain sect scriptures, they understood the process of organizing meetings and praying, and then began to chant scriptures to cure illnesses for patients.